樂意分享知識的因素

在上期「教評心事」曾向讀者介紹知識共享（Knowledge sharing, KS），一項十分重要的知識管理的關鍵活動，並簡介知識共享的四種類型，包括：「全面知識共享（Full KS）」、「部分知識共享（Partial KS）」，「積極知識囤積（Knowledge Hoarding）」和「脫離（Disengagement）」。Ford 和 Staples（2008）認為這四種類型的知識共享/知識囤積行為均有可能在不同機構、小組及個人中出現。今期希望能在此向讀者更深入介紹促進知識共享的相關因素。

基於知識共享文獻，學者發現有三種促進知識共享的相關因素：個體差異（Individual Differences），態度（Attitudes）和情境因素（Situational Factors），這些因素全都屬於知識管理框架中的人本因素（例如：Heisig, 2009; Holsapple和Joshi, 2000）。下文將討論它們與全部和部分知識共享的關係。

個體差異因素（Individual Differences Factor）

分享知識的傾向（Propensity）是指一個人樂意分享他/她的知識的傾向。傾向是不受環境影響，它反映某些時間和環境下的一系列行為趨勢，而意圖卻是受環境影響，並且只在未來的某特定時期內出現（Fishbein和Ajzen，1975）。傾向也不太理性，可能與個性或天生特徵相關，它不同於意圖，而意圖出於因果關係，不受個性或天生特徵影響。

分享知識的傾向意味着知識共享和享受共享的重要性（即內在動機）。例如，個人有天生高度分享知識的特徵或傾向意味着他/她應該非常樂意分享知識，這些人認為共享知識是重要的，他們不會傾向於保護知識。高度的分享知識傾向對「全面知識共享」的進行十分重要，因為「全面知識共享」需要更多公開的溝通。

態度因素（Attitudes Factor）

分享知識的傾向（Intentions）

分享知識的傾向是指個人分享知識的樂意程度以分享知識行為的主觀概率作衡量準則（Fishbein和Ajzen，1975）。理性行動理論（The Theory of Reasoned Action，Fishbein 和 Ajzen，1975）表明，進行行為的傾向能預測實際執行行為（例如：Eagly和Chaiken，1993）。

知識的預計價值（Perceived value of knowledge）

知識的預計價值是指知識提供者對準備分享的知識所預計的價值，這種價值的預計可以對知識共享產生重要影響（Augier et al, 2001; Leidner, 1999）。研究表明，知識型員工基於三個因素來預計他們知識的價值：有用性、效益和來源，這些因素與分享知識意圖和分享知識行為密切相關（Ford和Staples, 2006; Ye et al, 2006）。

──有用性是指知識在多大程度上幫助知識提供者完成工作或達到目標。

──效益在於知識提供者獲得回饋的程度（如尊重、工作的機會、競爭優勢）。

──來源是知識的原始提供者（例如高價值知識的導師和經驗、從打聽得來、低價值知識的書籍）。

知識分享行為對知識的價值有很重要的影響，可能是減少；亦可能是增加（從提高聲望或增加認同）。根據期望理論（Vroom，1964），知識提供者將以成本效益考慮未來分享知識的價值。成本可以包括時間和精力（Davenport和Prusak，1998），以及對知識（即獨特性）唯一擁有權利的機會成本及由此產生的對知識價值的影響（例如效益和有用性）。由於有價值的知識可以給予個人競爭優勢、權力，並使知識提供者被同事或上司（例如：Gray，2001）重視。這可能會抵銷整個分享知識的效益。

獨特性（Uniqueness）

知識的獨特性是人們認為他們的知識與別人的知識截然不同的程度，擁有的知識可以將個人與其他人區分開來，所以知識愈獨特，保護擁有權的擔憂就愈強烈。

心理擁有權（Psychological ownership）

心理擁有權是相信一個人對所涉知識具有擁有權（不是指法律上的擁有權，而只是心理上的擁有權）。學者已經發現心理擁有權與分享知識的意願有正相關關係，大概是因為當個人分享知識時，其他人會認為他／她是專家因而獲取相關的好處（Constant 等人，1994; McLure Wasko和Faraj，2000; Pierce等人，1991）。然而，心理擁有權也可能妨礙合作：「像過度擁有的孩子一樣，個人可能不願意與他人分享他/她所擁有的知識，或者可能覺得需要保留及控制」（Pierce等人，2003）。當心理擁有權被個人感覺到一種自尊、自我認同和/或安全感時，那麼個人對所涉知識很可能會產生一種像領土主權（Territoriality）的感覺，並標記和捍衛有關對象，不容別人侵犯（Brown 等人，2005 ）。

情境因素（Situational Factor）

感受到管理層支持（Perceived management support）

學者認為管理層的支持為分享知識的的先決條件（Connelly 和 Kelloway，2003; Pfeffer 和 Sutton，1999，Martiny，1998）。感受到管理層支持證明分享知識對機構的重要性。感受到管理層支持這因素也可解釋為什麼知識分享出現不平均的可能性（因為知識分享得到的獎勵不一致）。

人際信任和不信任（Interpersonal trust and distrust）

人際信任與知識分享具正相關關係，因為它減輕知識分享的風險（Gray，2001）。根據互惠準則，當有人樂意分享知識，接收者會更樂意分享知識，這也是基於之前所建立的信任。再者，當知識提供者分享知識時，他給人有可信賴的感覺，他在人際間的信任感也會相應提高，知識提供者的知識分享行為也可以被視為對其他人的支持，他們所分享的知識就是他們與其他人的聯繫（例如，McAllister等，2003）。相反，人際間的不信任會導致知識保護，兩者有直接關係，因而導致知識提供者不樂意分享知識（McAllister等，2003）。

上文簡介三種促進知識共享的相關因素：個體差異、態度和情境因素，這些因素全都屬於知識管理框架中的人本因素（例如，Heisig, 2009; Holsapple和Joshi, 2000）。 這些因素包括：分享知識的傾向、知識的預計價值、知識的獨特性以及知識的心理擁有權、感受到管理層對「知識共享」的支持度、人際信任和不信任。這些因素都會直接或間接影響知識提供者是否樂意分享知識，進一步影響機構內的知識共享的發展。有志於推行知識管理的人士就要小心考慮上述因素而作出行動調整，方能令知識管理有效推行。

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